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It is characterized by the progressive loss of dopamine-producing cells in the brain, leading to symptoms such as tremors, stiffness, and difficulty with movement and coordination
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Signs & Symptoms Clinical presentation varies significantly by diabetes type, duration, and degree of glycemic control
Abbreviations AGEs: Advanced glycation end products AMPK: Adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase Akt: Serine/threonine kinase 1 CHCHD2 : Coiled-Coil-Helix-Coiled-Coil-Helix Domain Containing 2 CSF: Cerebrospinal fluid ER: Estrogen receptor FDG-PET: Fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission Tomography FOXO: Forkhead box O G6PD: Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase GAPDH: Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase GLUT: Glucose transporters GLP-1: Glucagon-like peptide-1 GLP-1 RA: GLP-1 receptor agonist HIF1: Hypoxia-inducible factor-1 iRBD: Idiopathic rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder KGDHC: -Ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex LRRK2 : Leucine-rich repeat kinase2 mTOR: Mammalian target of rapamycin MPTP: 1-Methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine MPP + : 1-Methyl-4-phenylpyridinium NADPH: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate NOX2: NADPH oxidase 2 OXPHOS: Oxidative phosphorylation PD: Parkinson's disease PDSP: PD specific pattern PDD: PD dementia PGK1: Phosphoglycerate kinase 1 PPP: Pentose phosphate pathway PQ: Paraquat PINK1 : PTEN induced putative kinase 1 ROS: Reactive oxygen species SGLT: Sodium-glucose cotransporter SN: Substantia nigra T2DM: Type 2 diabetes mellitus TCA: Tricarboxylic acid TRAP1: Tumor necrosis factor receptor associated protein 1 VH: Visual hallucinations 6-OHDA: 6-Hydroxydopamine References Bloem BR, Okun MS, Klein C
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