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Common causes include: Pernicious anaemia Malabsorption disorders (e.g., coeliac disease, Crohns) Chronic alcohol abuse Long-term use of antacids or metformin Vegan or vegetarian diet without supplementation 3

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While singly-housed animals may experience stress that impacts metabolism, body weight, and adiposity 65,66,67,68,69 , the singly-housed animals in this study were treated identically (to the best of the experimenters ability) to minimize and equalize stress across all animals and reduce confounding variables

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