Similarly to cigarette smoke, waterpipe smoke contains toxins that have been implicated in lung diseases (e.g
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These increased inflammatory factors and chemokines leads to further infiltration of immune cells into the respiratory tract, resulting in dysfunctions of fibroblasts, goblet cells, and epithelial cells, ultimately leading to emphysema, mucus accumulation, inflammation, and pulmonary fibrosis [52]
Remember, quick first aid can manage most bites, but recognising the red flags of anaphylaxis is a critical skill that can save a life
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