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This was a more equitable risk classification method, because the non-smokers were no longer subsidizing the smokers who had worse mortality

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Notably, heterogeneity tests between different dose groups (p=0.049) further validate the gradient effect: the consistency of effects in the high-dose group (20 cigarettes/day, I 2 =0.0%) suggests a more direct toxic mechanism, such as inhibition of placental angiogenesis