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[90] assessed the effects of e-cigarette vapor (ECV) on vascular function in smokers and experimental mice

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In general, these drugs fall into two main groups based on their intended use: medical (therapeutic) and nonmedical (recreational drugs or uppers)

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Furthermore, a combinatorial approach targeting both NLRP3 activation and oxidative stress has been proposed as a promising therapeutic strategy, with the potential to restore small airway function, mitigate structural injury, and ultimately prevent disease progression ( Remodeling phase Proliferation of smooth muscle cellsFibrosisVascular Pruning Airway smooth muscle (ASM) in COPD small airway pathology commonly exhibits cellular hyperplasia and hypertrophy, leading to airway wall thickening, increased airway contractility, and directly contributing to small airway stenosis and airflow limitation (56, 57)