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Women who have experienced a miscarriage can understandably be at increased risk of depression and anxiety, as well as post-traumatic stress disorder, as a result of their loss

Similarly, using items like mouthwash or chewing gum shortly before testing can change drug metabolite levels in saliva, potentially skewing the results

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The Chic Ring Cigarette Holder

If these factors are associated with both e-cigarette use and combustible tobacco cigarette smoking initiation and are not in the causal pathway, they could statistically bias the study results and create a spurious effect of e-cigarette use on a combustible tobacco cigarette use outcome